<!DOCTYPE html>
<html lang="en">
<head>
  <meta charset="UTF-8">
  <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0">
  <meta name="aspect-ratio" content="4:3">
  <style>
    * { box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0; padding: 0; }
    body {
      font-family: system-ui, -apple-system, sans-serif;
      color: #1e2945;
      background: #ffffff;
      padding: 12px;
      display: flex;
      flex-direction: column;
      align-items: center;
      gap: 10px;
      user-select: none;
    }

    .badges-row {
      display: flex;
      width: 100%;
      max-width: 520px;
      gap: 8px;
    }

    .badge-card {
      flex: 1;
      background: #eff6ff;
      border: 1px solid #dbeafe;
      border-radius: 8px;
      padding: 6px 10px;
      text-align: center;
    }

    .badge-title {
      font-size: 11px;
      font-weight: 700;
      text-transform: uppercase;
      letter-spacing: 0.5px;
      color: #2563eb;
      margin-bottom: 2px;
    }

    .badge-desc {
      font-size: 13px;
      font-weight: 600;
      color: #1e2945;
    }

    .sim-wrap {
      position: relative;
      width: 100%;
      max-width: 520px;
      height: 250px;
      background: #f8fafc;
      border-radius: 12px;
      border: 1px solid #e2e8f0;
      overflow: hidden;
    }

    canvas {
      width: 100%;
      height: 100%;
      display: block;
    }

    .controls-row {
      display: flex;
      width: 100%;
      max-width: 520px;
      gap: 8px;
      justify-content: center;
    }

    .state-btn {
      flex: 1;
      padding: 8px 12px;
      font-size: 13px;
      font-weight: 600;
      border-radius: 8px;
      border: 1px solid #cbd5e1;
      background: #ffffff;
      color: #1e2945;
      cursor: pointer;
      display: flex;
      flex-direction: column;
      align-items: center;
      gap: 2px;
      transition: background 0.2s, border-color 0.2s, box-shadow 0.2s;
    }

    .state-btn.active {
      background: #eff6ff;
      border-color: #3b82f6;
      box-shadow: 0 0 0 1px #3b82f6;
      color: #1d4ed8;
    }

    .state-sub {
      font-size: 11px;
      font-weight: 500;
      color: #64748b;
    }
    .state-btn.active .state-sub {
      color: #2563eb;
    }
  </style>
</head>
<body>

  <div class="badges-row">
    <div class="badge-card">
      <div class="badge-title">Empirical Law (Macro)</div>
      <div class="badge-desc">P₁V₁ = P₂V₂</div>
    </div>
    <div class="badge-card">
      <div class="badge-title">Kinetic Theory (Micro)</div>
      <div class="badge-desc">Pressure ∝ Collisions</div>
    </div>
  </div>

  <div class="sim-wrap">
    <canvas id="simCanvas"></canvas>
  </div>

  <div class="controls-row">
    <button class="state-btn active" id="btnV1">
      <span>Volume = V</span>
      <span class="state-sub">1× Collision Rate (1 atm)</span>
    </button>
    <button class="state-btn" id="btnV2">
      <span>Volume = ½V</span>
      <span class="state-sub">2× Collision Rate (2 atm)</span>
    </button>
  </div>

  <script>
    const canvas = document.getElementById('simCanvas');
    const ctx = canvas.getContext('2d');
    const btnV1 = document.getElementById('btnV1');
    const btnV2 = document.getElementById('btnV2');

    let dpr = window.devicePixelRatio || 1;
    let cw, ch;

    function resize() {
      const rect = canvas.getBoundingClientRect();
      cw = rect.width;
      ch = rect.height;
      canvas.width = cw * dpr;
      canvas.height = ch * dpr;
      ctx.scale(dpr, dpr);
    }
    resize();
    window.addEventListener('resize', resize);

    // Chamber & Piston setup
    let state = 1; // 1 = full, 2 = half
    let pistonTopTarget = 0.15; // as fraction of chamber height
    let pistonTopCur = 0.15;

    const N = 18;
    const particles = [];
    const radius = 5.5;

    for (let i = 0; i < N; i++) {
      const angle = Math.random() * Math.PI * 2;
      const speed = 1.3 + Math.random() * 0.4;
      particles.push({
        rx: 0.1 + Math.random() * 0.8,
        ry: 0.25 + Math.random() * 0.65,
        vx: Math.cos(angle) * speed,
        vy: Math.sin(angle) * speed
      });
    }

    const collisions = []; // visual impact sparks

    function addCollision(x, y) {
      collisions.push({ x, y, r: 2, alpha: 0.9 });
    }

    btnV1.addEventListener('click', () => {
      state = 1;
      pistonTopTarget = 0.15;
      btnV1.classList.add('active');
      btnV2.classList.remove('active');
    });

    btnV2.addEventListener('click', () => {
      state = 2;
      pistonTopTarget = 0.52;
      btnV2.classList.add('active');
      btnV1.classList.remove('active');
    });

    function draw() {
      ctx.clearRect(0, 0, cw, ch);

      // Smooth piston interpolation
      pistonTopCur += (pistonTopTarget - pistonTopCur) * 0.08;

      const chamberL = cw * 0.12;
      const chamberR = cw * 0.88;
      const chamberB = ch * 0.90;
      const chamberT = ch * 0.12;
      const chamberW = chamberR - chamberL;
      const totalH = chamberB - chamberT;

      const pistonY = chamberT + totalH * pistonTopCur;

      // Draw Chamber Walls
      ctx.strokeStyle = '#94a3b8';
      ctx.lineWidth = 4;
      ctx.lineCap = 'round';
      ctx.beginPath();
      ctx.moveTo(chamberL, chamberT - 6);
      ctx.lineTo(chamberL, chamberB);
      ctx.lineTo(chamberR, chamberB);
      ctx.lineTo(chamberR, chamberT - 6);
      ctx.stroke();

      // Draw Piston Head
      ctx.fillStyle = '#cbd5e1';
      ctx.strokeStyle = '#64748b';
      ctx.lineWidth = 2;
      ctx.beginPath();
      ctx.roundRect(chamberL + 2, pistonY - 14, chamberW - 4, 14, [4, 4, 0, 0]);
      ctx.fill();
      ctx.stroke();

      // Piston Rod
      ctx.fillStyle = '#94a3b8';
      ctx.fillRect(cw / 2 - 6, chamberT - 16, 12, pistonY - chamberT);

      // Collision sparks
      for (let i = collisions.length - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
        const c = collisions[i];
        ctx.strokeStyle = `rgba(239, 68, 68, ${c.alpha})`;
        ctx.lineWidth = 1.5;
        ctx.beginPath();
        ctx.arc(c.x, c.y, c.r, 0, Math.PI * 2);
        ctx.stroke();
        c.r += 0.8;
        c.alpha -= 0.08;
        if (c.alpha <= 0) collisions.splice(i, 1);
      }

      // Update & Draw Particles
      const minX = chamberL + radius + 2;
      const maxX = chamberR - radius - 2;
      const minY = pistonY + radius + 1;
      const maxY = chamberB - radius - 2;

      particles.forEach(p => {
        let px = chamberL + p.rx * chamberW;
        let py = chamberT + p.ry * totalH;

        px += p.vx;
        py += p.vy;

        // Bounce X
        if (px <= minX) {
          px = minX;
          p.vx = Math.abs(p.vx);
          addCollision(chamberL, py);
        } else if (px >= maxX) {
          px = maxX;
          p.vx = -Math.abs(p.vx);
          addCollision(chamberR, py);
        }

        // Bounce Y
        if (py <= minY) {
          py = minY;
          p.vy = Math.abs(p.vy);
          addCollision(px, pistonY);
        } else if (py >= maxY) {
          py = maxY;
          p.vy = -Math.abs(p.vy);
          addCollision(px, chamberB);
        }

        p.rx = (px - chamberL) / chamberW;
        p.ry = (py - chamberT) / totalH;

        // Velocity vector / tail
        ctx.strokeStyle = 'rgba(59, 130, 246, 0.4)';
        ctx.lineWidth = 1.5;
        ctx.beginPath();
        ctx.moveTo(px, py);
        ctx.lineTo(px - p.vx * 4, py - p.vy * 4);
        ctx.stroke();

        // Particle circle
        ctx.fillStyle = '#2563eb';
        ctx.beginPath();
        ctx.arc(px, py, radius, 0, Math.PI * 2);
        ctx.fill();

        // Highlight
        ctx.fillStyle = '#93c5fd';
        ctx.beginPath();
        ctx.arc(px - 1.5, py - 1.5, 1.8, 0, Math.PI * 2);
        ctx.fill();
      });

      requestAnimationFrame(draw);
    }

    requestAnimationFrame(draw);
  </script>
</body>
</html>

Differentiating Hypotheses, Laws, Theories, and Models

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html lang="en">
<head>
  <meta charset="UTF-8">
  <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0">
  <meta name="aspect-ratio" content="4:3">
  <style>
    * {
      box-sizing: border-box;
      margin: 0;
      padding: 0;
      font-family: system-ui, -apple-system, BlinkMacSystemFont, "Segoe UI", Roboto, sans-serif;
    }

    body {
      width: 100%;
      background: #f8fafc;
      color: #1e2945;
      padding: 10px;
    }

    .grid-container {
      display: grid;
      grid-template-columns: 1fr 1fr;
      gap: 10px;
      max-width: 650px;
      margin: 0 auto;
    }

    .model-card {
      background: #ffffff;
      border: 1.5px solid #e2e8f0;
      border-radius: 12px;
      padding: 10px;
      display: flex;
      flex-direction: column;
      align-items: center;
      justify-content: space-between;
      min-height: 160px;
      box-shadow: 0 1px 3px rgba(0,0,0,0.04);
      transition: border-color 0.2s ease, box-shadow 0.2s ease;
    }

    .model-card:hover {
      border-color: #2563eb;
      box-shadow: 0 4px 12px rgba(37, 99, 235, 0.12);
    }

    .card-header {
      display: flex;
      align-items: center;
      gap: 6px;
      width: 100%;
      font-size: 13px;
      font-weight: 700;
      color: #1e2945;
    }

    .badge-icon {
      width: 22px;
      height: 22px;
      border-radius: 6px;
      background: #eff6ff;
      color: #2563eb;
      display: flex;
      align-items: center;
      justify-content: center;
      font-size: 12px;
      font-weight: bold;
    }

    .visual-area {
      width: 100%;
      height: 85px;
      display: flex;
      align-items: center;
      justify-content: center;
      background: #f8fafc;
      border-radius: 8px;
      position: relative;
      overflow: hidden;
    }

    .card-tag {
      font-size: 11px;
      font-weight: 600;
      color: #64748b;
      background: #f1f5f9;
      padding: 2px 8px;
      border-radius: 10px;
    }

    /* 1. Conceptual Flow */
    .flow-step {
      display: flex;
      flex-direction: column;
      align-items: center;
      font-size: 16px;
    }

    .flow-arrow {
      color: #2563eb;
      font-size: 13px;
      font-weight: 900;
      margin: 0 3px;
      animation: pulse 2s infinite ease-in-out;
    }

    /* 2. Math Formula */
    .math-eq {
      font-size: 18px;
      font-weight: 800;
      letter-spacing: 0.5px;
      color: #1e2945;
      display: flex;
      align-items: center;
      gap: 3px;
    }

    .var-group {
      display: flex;
      flex-direction: column;
      align-items: center;
    }

    .var-sym {
      color: #2563eb;
    }

    .var-lbl {
      font-size: 8px;
      font-weight: 600;
      color: #64748b;
      margin-top: 1px;
    }

    /* 3. Physical Ball-and-Stick */
    .svg-canvas {
      width: 100%;
      height: 100%;
    }

    /* 4. Computational Grid */
    .comp-grid {
      display: grid;
      grid-template-columns: repeat(4, 18px);
      gap: 3px;
    }

    .cell {
      width: 18px;
      height: 18px;
      border-radius: 3px;
      display: flex;
      align-items: center;
      justify-content: center;
      font-size: 9px;
      color: #ffffff;
      font-weight: bold;
    }

    .c-blue { background: #3b82f6; }
    .c-cyan { background: #06b6d4; }
    .c-amber { background: #f59e0b; }
    .c-rose { background: #f43f5e; }

    @keyframes pulse {
      0%, 100% { opacity: 0.4; }
      50% { opacity: 1; }
    }
  </style>
</head>
<body>

  <div class="grid-container">
    
    <div class="model-card">
      <div class="card-header">
        <span class="badge-icon">1</span>
        <span>Conceptual</span>
      </div>
      <div class="visual-area">
        <div class="flow-step"><span>☀️</span></div>
        <span class="flow-arrow">➔</span>
        <div class="flow-step"><span>🌱</span></div>
        <span class="flow-arrow">➔</span>
        <div class="flow-step"><span>🐰</span></div>
      </div>
      <span class="card-tag">Energy Flow</span>
    </div>

    
    <div class="model-card">
      <div class="card-header">
        <span class="badge-icon">2</span>
        <span>Mathematical</span>
      </div>
      <div class="visual-area">
        <div class="math-eq">
          <div class="var-group"><span class="var-sym">P</span><span class="var-lbl">Pressure</span></div>
          <div class="var-group"><span class="var-sym">V</span><span class="var-lbl">Volume</span></div>
          <span>=</span>
          <div class="var-group"><span class="var-sym">n</span><span class="var-lbl">Moles</span></div>
          <div class="var-group"><span class="var-sym">R</span><span class="var-lbl">Const</span></div>
          <div class="var-group"><span class="var-sym">T</span><span class="var-lbl">Temp</span></div>
        </div>
      </div>
      <span class="card-tag">PV = nRT</span>
    </div>

    
    <div class="model-card">
      <div class="card-header">
        <span class="badge-icon">3</span>
        <span>Physical</span>
      </div>
      <div class="visual-area">
        <svg class="svg-canvas" viewBox="0 0 120 70">
          
          <line x1="60" y1="28" x2="32" y2="52" stroke="#94a3b8" stroke-width="4.5" stroke-linecap="round" />
          <line x1="60" y1="28" x2="88" y2="52" stroke="#94a3b8" stroke-width="4.5" stroke-linecap="round" />
          
          
          <circle cx="60" cy="28" r="14" fill="#ef4444" />
          <circle cx="56" cy="24" r="3.5" fill="#fca5a5" />
          <text x="60" y="32" font-size="10" font-weight="bold" fill="#ffffff" text-anchor="middle">O</text>
          
          
          <circle cx="32" cy="52" r="9" fill="#93c5fd" />
          <circle cx="30" cy="49" r="2.5" fill="#ffffff" />
          <text x="32" y="55" font-size="8" font-weight="bold" fill="#1e3a8a" text-anchor="middle">H</text>

          <circle cx="88" cy="52" r="9" fill="#93c5fd" />
          <circle cx="86" cy="49" r="2.5" fill="#ffffff" />
          <text x="88" y="55" font-size="8" font-weight="bold" fill="#1e3a8a" text-anchor="middle">H</text>
        </svg>
      </div>
      <span class="card-tag">H₂O Molecule</span>
    </div>

    
    <div class="model-card">
      <div class="card-header">
        <span class="badge-icon">4</span>
        <span>Computational</span>
      </div>
      <div class="visual-area">
        <div class="comp-grid">
          <div class="cell c-blue">↗</div>
          <div class="cell c-blue">↑</div>
          <div class="cell c-cyan">↗</div>
          <div class="cell c-amber">→</div>
          <div class="cell c-cyan">↗</div>
          <div class="cell c-cyan">→</div>
          <div class="cell c-amber">↘</div>
          <div class="cell c-rose">↓</div>
          <div class="cell c-amber">→</div>
          <div class="cell c-rose">↘</div>
          <div class="cell c-rose">↓</div>
          <div class="cell c-rose">↙</div>
        </div>
      </div>
      <span class="card-tag">Climate Grid</span>
    </div>
  </div>

</body>
</html>

<!DOCTYPE html>
<html lang="en">
<head>
  <meta charset="UTF-8">
  <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0">
  <meta name="aspect-ratio" content="1:1">
  <style>
    * { box-sizing: border-box; margin: 0; padding: 0; }
    body {
      font-family: system-ui, -apple-system, BlinkMacSystemFont, "Segoe UI", Roboto, sans-serif;
      background: transparent;
      color: #0f172a;
      display: flex;
      flex-direction: column;
      align-items: center;
      justify-content: space-between;
      width: 100%;
      min-height: 100%;
      padding: 8px 10px 10px;
      user-select: none;
      -webkit-user-select: none;
    }

    /* Myth Banner */
    .myth-banner {
      width: 100%;
      max-width: 440px;
      background: #fef2f2;
      border: 1.5px solid #fecaca;
      border-radius: 8px;
      padding: 6px 10px;
      display: flex;
      align-items: center;
      justify-content: space-between;
      gap: 6px;
      margin-bottom: 2px;
    }
    .myth-tag {
      font-size: 11px;
      font-weight: 800;
      color: #dc2626;
      background: #fee2e2;
      padding: 2px 6px;
      border-radius: 4px;
      letter-spacing: 0.5px;
      white-space: nowrap;
      flex-shrink: 0;
    }
    .myth-flow-wrap {
      position: relative;
      display: inline-flex;
      align-items: center;
      justify-content: center;
      white-space: nowrap;
      flex-shrink: 1;
      min-width: 0;
    }
    .myth-flow {
      font-size: 12px;
      font-weight: 700;
      color: #991b1b;
      letter-spacing: -0.2px;
    }
    .myth-flow-wrap::after {
      content: '';
      position: absolute;
      left: -4px;
      right: -4px;
      top: 50%;
      height: 2px;
      background: #dc2626;
      transform: translateY(-50%) rotate(-3deg);
      border-radius: 2px;
      pointer-events: none;
    }
    .myth-label {
      font-size: 11.5px;
      font-weight: 700;
      color: #dc2626;
      white-space: nowrap;
      flex-shrink: 0;
    }

    /* SVG Map */
    .map-container {
      width: 100%;
      max-width: 440px;
      flex: 1;
      display: flex;
      align-items: center;
      justify-content: center;
      padding: 4px 0;
    }
    svg {
      width: 100%;
      height: auto;
      max-height: 290px;
      overflow: visible;
    }

    .node {
      cursor: pointer;
      transition: opacity 0.2s ease;
    }
    .node rect {
      rx: 10;
      ry: 10;
      stroke-width: 2;
      transition: stroke-width 0.2s ease, filter 0.2s ease;
    }
    .node-title {
      font-size: 12.5px;
      font-weight: 800;
      text-anchor: middle;
      letter-spacing: 0.3px;
    }
    .node-sub {
      font-size: 10px;
      font-weight: 600;
      text-anchor: middle;
      fill: #334155;
    }

    /* Node Themes */
    .n-theory rect { fill: #f5f3ff; stroke: #8b5cf6; }
    .n-theory .node-title { fill: #5b21b6; }
    .n-model rect { fill: #f0f9ff; stroke: #0284c7; }
    .n-model .node-title { fill: #0369a1; }
    .n-hypo rect { fill: #fffbeb; stroke: #d97706; }
    .n-hypo .node-title { fill: #92400e; }
    .n-law rect { fill: #ecfdf5; stroke: #10b981; }
    .n-law .node-title { fill: #065f46; }

    /* Active Highlight States */
    .node.active rect {
      stroke-width: 3.5;
      filter: drop-shadow(0 3px 6px rgba(0,0,0,0.16));
    }

    /* Flow Lines & Labels */
    .path-flow {
      fill: none;
      stroke: #94a3b8;
      stroke-width: 2;
      stroke-linecap: round;
      stroke-linejoin: round;
      transition: stroke 0.25s, stroke-width 0.25s;
    }
    .path-flow.active-path {
      stroke: #2563eb;
      stroke-width: 3;
    }
    .path-label {
      font-size: 10.5px;
      font-weight: 800;
      fill: #1e293b;
      text-anchor: middle;
      paint-order: stroke fill;
      stroke: #ffffff;
      stroke-width: 3px;
      stroke-linejoin: round;
    }

    /* Bottom Nav */
    .nav-bar {
      width: 100%;
      max-width: 440px;
      display: flex;
      gap: 5px;
      justify-content: center;
      margin-top: 2px;
    }
    .step-btn {
      flex: 1;
      padding: 6px 3px;
      font-size: 11.5px;
      font-weight: 700;
      border-radius: 6px;
      border: 1.5px solid #cbd5e1;
      background: #f8fafc;
      color: #334155;
      cursor: pointer;
      text-align: center;
      transition: background 0.15s, color 0.15s, border-color 0.15s;
    }
    .step-btn.active {
      background: #1e293b;
      color: #ffffff;
      border-color: #1e293b;
    }
    .play-btn {
      width: 32px;
      flex: 0 0 32px;
      display: flex;
      align-items: center;
      justify-content: center;
      font-size: 12px;
    }

    /* Narrow screen adjustments */
    @media (max-width: 360px) {
      .myth-banner {
        padding: 5px 6px;
        gap: 4px;
      }
      .myth-tag {
        font-size: 9.5px;
        padding: 1px 4px;
      }
      .myth-flow {
        font-size: 10.5px;
      }
      .myth-label {
        font-size: 10px;
      }
      .step-btn {
        font-size: 10px;
        padding: 5px 2px;
      }
    }
  </style>
</head>
<body>

  
  <div class="myth-banner">
    <span class="myth-tag">MYTH</span>
    <div class="myth-flow-wrap">
      <span class="myth-flow">Hypothesis ➔ Theory ➔ Law</span>
    </div>
    <span class="myth-label">❌ Not a Ladder</span>
  </div>

  
  <div class="map-container">
    <svg viewBox="0 0 380 230" aria-label="Scientific cycle diagram showing Theory, Model, Hypothesis, and Law">
      <defs>
        <marker id="arr-gray" viewBox="0 0 8 8" refX="6" refY="4" markerWidth="6" markerHeight="6" orient="auto-start-reverse">
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    <h1>From Testable Prediction to Empirical Law</h1>
    <p>Conjecture vs. Mathematical Regularity (Boyle's Experiment)</p>
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        <b>IF:</b> Pressure is doubled on gas<br>
        <b>THEN:</b> Volume will compress to exactly 50%?
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        <b>Status:</b> A tentative claim awaiting experimental test.
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        <span class="panel-title">Boyle's Law</span>
        <span class="tag tag-blue">Empirical Law</span>
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        <i>P</i><sub>1</sub><i>V</i><sub>1</sub> = <i>P</i><sub>2</sub><i>V</i><sub>2</sub> = constant
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              <rect x="23" y="11" width="22" height="12" rx="2" fill="#2563eb" stroke="#1d4ed8" stroke-width="1"/>
              <rect x="23" y="24" width="22" height="12" rx="2" fill="#2563eb" stroke="#1d4ed8" stroke-width="1"/>
              <text x="34" y="27" font-size="8" font-weight="bold" fill="#ffffff" text-anchor="middle">2 atm</text>
            </svg>
            <span class="cylinder-label"><i>P</i> = 2, <b>V = 1.0 L</b></span>
          </div>
        </div>
      </div>

      <div class="status-text">
        <b>Status:</b> Confirmed mathematical relation (at constant <i>T</i>).
      </div>
    </div>
  </div>

  
  <div class="callout">
    <b>Key Distinction:</b> Empirical laws describe <b>WHAT</b> happens mathematically (<i>P</i> ∝ 1/<i>V</i>), but do <b>NOT</b> explain the underlying mechanism (why particles create pressure).
  </div>

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</html>

Asking Scientific Questions from Observations

What Is Biology? Major Fields of Study

Designing Investigations to Answer Scientific Questions

Using Safety Equipment During Investigations

Distinguishing Hypotheses, Theories, and Laws

Communicating and Arguing in Biology

Developing Explanations Supported by Data

science

Biology and Scientific Inquiry

O que é ciência e o método científico

Formulando perguntas e hipóteses investigáveis

Variáveis em experimentos: independente, dependente e controle

Instrumentos de medição e suas incertezas

Sistema Internacional de Unidades no laboratório

Coletando e organizando dados experimentais

Planejamento e Condução de Experimentos

How Scientific Theories Evolve with New Evidence

From Plum Pudding to the Nuclear Atom: A Model Evolution Case Study

Representational Models in Science: Particles and Cells

Spatial and Scale Models in Astronomy and Microbiology

Descriptive and Analogous Models: Lock-and-Key and Circuit Analogies

Mathematical Models in Science: Equations and Proportionality

Computational Simulations and Climate Modelling

Evaluating the Limitations of Scientific Models

Testing Hypotheses Against Competing Scientific Theories

Historical Milestones in Scientific Methodology

Scientific Models and How Theories Develop

Atoms, Ions, and Molecules in Biology

Water as a Biological Solvent

pH, Acids, Bases, and Living Systems

The Four Biological Macromolecules

Monomers, Polymers, and Dehydration Synthesis

Identifying Macromolecules Using Chemical Tests

Chemistry of Life

Principles of Cell Theory

Comparing Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

Organelles and Their Functions

Differences Between Plant and Animal Cells

Using Microscopes to Study Cells

Cell Size and Surface-Area-to-Volume Ratio

Cell Specialization and Differentiation

Building Physical Models to Represent Phenomena

Cell Structure and Function

El escepticismo científico como herramienta de conocimiento

Aceptación de la crítica de pares en el trabajo escolar

La replicabilidad y reproducibilidad en el método científico

¿Qué es un modelo científico y para qué sirve?

La evolución histórica del modelo atómico

Coexistencia de modelos: ondulatorio y corpuscular de la luz

Escepticismo científico y construcción de modelos

Estados físicos da matéria e mudanças de estado

Composição da matéria: átomos e moléculas

Evolução dos modelos atômicos: de Dalton a Bohr

Estrutura do átomo: prótons, nêutrons e elétrons

Número atômico, número de massa e isótopos

Distribuição eletrônica e camadas de energia

Estrutura da Matéria e Átomos

Del geocentrismo al heliocentrismo: cambio de paradigmas

Modelos de placas tectónicas y deriva continental

Alcance y limitaciones de los modelos científicos

La falsabilidad como criterio de demarcación científica

La revisión por pares en las publicaciones científicas

La ciencia como proceso provisional y autocorrectivo

Cambios de paradigma y la naturaleza autocorrectiva de la ciencia

The Fluid Mosaic Model of Membranes

Selective Permeability and Transport

Diffusion and Osmosis in Cells

Active Transport and Bulk Transport

Homeostasis and Membrane Transport

Cell Membrane and Transport

Constructing Physical and Conceptual Scientific Models

Developing and Testing Mathematical Models in Science

Using Computational Simulations to Test Natural Phenomena

Evaluating Model Limitations, Assumptions, and Boundary Conditions

Iterative Model Refinement Based on Anomalous Data

Applying Scientific Models to Evaluate Engineering Solutions

Scientific Modeling, Computational Simulations, and Epistemology

How Enzymes Speed Up Reactions

Factors That Affect Enzyme Activity

Enzyme Inhibition and Regulation

Calculating Enzyme Reaction Rates

Evaluating Enzyme Investigation Designs

Identifying Sources of Error in Investigations

Enzymes and Metabolism

Tipos de modelos científicos: físicos, conceptuales y matemáticos

Modelos atómicos y su capacidad predictiva histórica

Modelación del enlace químico mediante estructuras de Lewis

Modelos de transmisión genética: cuadros de Punnett

Modelación de redes tróficas y flujo de energía

Modelos mecánicos: conservación de la energía mecánica

Modelos de tectónica de placas y dinámica terrestre

Modelos científicos en diferentes dominios

Overview of the Photosynthesis Process

Light Reactions in Photosynthesis

The Calvin Cycle

Overview of Cellular Respiration

Stages of Cellular Respiration

ATP: The Energy Currency of Cells

Comparing Photosynthesis and Respiration

Making Line Graphs to Show Trends

Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration

Principles of Representative Sampling and Avoiding Bias

Random Sampling Using Quadrats and Coordinate Grids

Systematic Sampling Along Transects and Environmental Gradients

Calculating Population Size Estimates from Sample Data

Sampling Mobile Organisms: The Lincoln Index (Capture-Recapture)

Measuring Abiotic Factors in Ecological Sampling

Sampling in Chemical and Industrial Quality Control

Evaluating Sample Size Sufficiency and Running Means

Stratified Sampling in Heterogeneous Environments

Exam-Style Sampling Critique and Investigation Plans

Scientific Sampling, Fieldwork and Representativeness

The Cell Cycle and Its Phases

Stages of Mitosis

Cytokinesis and Cytoplasm Division

Cell Cycle Checkpoints and Regulation

Cancer: Uncontrolled Cell Division

Cancer Research and Treatments

Cell Cycle, Mitosis, and Cancer

Uso de simulaciones digitales para la predicción científica

Comparación entre predicciones del modelo y datos empíricos

Ajuste y refinamiento de modelos a partir de evidencia

Modelos de propagación de ondas y óptica geométrica

Evaluación crítica del alcance predictivo de un modelo

Proceso de modelación: simulación, evaluación y refinamiento

Meiosis and Chromosome Reduction

Meiosis I and Meiosis II Stages

Sources of Genetic Variation in Meiosis

Comparing Mitosis and Meiosis

Modeling Meiosis with Diagrams

Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction

Mendel's Laws of Heredity

Genotype, Phenotype, and Alleles

Solving Monohybrid Crosses with Punnett Squares

Dihybrid Crosses and Independent Assortment

Incomplete Dominance and Codominance

Sex-Linked Traits and Pedigrees

Evaluating Genetics Experiment Designs

Using Math to Compare Science Data

Genetics and Heredity

DNA Structure and Base Pairing

DNA Replication Process

Transcription: From DNA to mRNA

Translation: From mRNA to Protein

The Genetic Code: Codons and Anticodons

Types of Mutations and Their Effects

Modeling the Central Dogma

DNA, Replication, and Protein Synthesis

Calculating the Range of Repeated Measurements

Calculating Uncertainty as Half the Range of Repeats

Calculating Percentage Uncertainty in Measurements

Representing Uncertainty on Graphs Using Error Bars

Interpreting Overlap in Error Bars and Data Distributions

Estimating Uncertainties from Single Analogue and Digital Readings

Combining Uncertainties in Experimental Measurements

Analysing Normal Distribution Curves and Spread

Strategies for Minimising Percentage Uncertainty

Exam-Style Questions on Uncertainties and Ranges

Estimating Uncertainty, Range and Result Distributions

Gene Regulation in Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

Recombinant DNA and Genetic Engineering

PCR and DNA Fingerprinting

CRISPR and Modern Gene Editing

Ethical Debates in Biotechnology

STEM Careers in Biotechnology

Gene Regulation and Biotechnology

Evidence for Evolution from Multiple Fields

Darwin's Theory of Natural Selection

Types of Natural Selection

Genetic Drift, Gene Flow, and Microevolution

Speciation and Evolutionary Patterns

Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Calculations

How Scientific Theories Develop and Change

Evolution and Natural Selection

DNA: estrutura e função

Síntese de proteínas: transcrição e tradução

Leis de Mendel e hereditariedade

Genótipo e fenótipo: expressão gênica

Herança ligada ao sexo e mutações

Tecnologias do DNA e suas aplicações

Células-tronco e debates éticos

Genética e Biotecnologia: DNA, Hereditariedade e Ética

Why Cells Divide: Growth, Repair, and Reproduction

Interphase: Growth and DNA Synthesis

The Mitotic Phase: Chromosome Separation

Cytokinesis: Splitting the Cell

Modeling Cell Cycle Phases

The Cell Cycle and Mitosis

The Three Domains and Six Kingdoms

Binomial Nomenclature and Taxonomy

Constructing Phylogenetic Trees

Using DNA to Determine Relatedness

Dichotomous Keys and Identification

Classification and Phylogeny

Meiosis: Producing Haploid Cells

Meiosis, Division Comparison, and Scientific Reasoning

OGS.10.SEP.4

Aligned learning resources

Related diagrams